Marketing Management (MB221) : January 2006 Answers

Suggested Answers
Marketing Management (MB221) : January 2006
Section A : Basic Concepts
1. Answer : (d)
Reason: Possession utility allows a buyer to use the product as he wishes. It is the value that a buyer obtains
from the product. (b) Marketers provide time utility to their customers by providing their products
when the customers want them. (c) Place utility is provided when a marketer provides the product at
locations preferred by the customer. (d) Form utility is created when raw material is converted into a
finished product.
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2. Answer : (a)
Reason: A new staff incentive scheme should be considered as part of the internal environment and not the
macro-environment of a firm. .
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3. Answer : (b)
Reason: Increase in cost of selling is not a benefit of retaining customers. The remaining options are benefits
of retaining customers.
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4. Answer : (c)
Reason: Market logistics decisions involve order processing, inventory management , and the transportation
process.
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5. Answer : (d)
Reason: A customer being dissatisfied with a product purchase does not form sufficient ground to seek legal
help. Therefore, its not included in the consumer protection act
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6. Answer : (c)
Reason: Customer profitability analysis is carried out with the help of customer and operational data by using
specialized analytical techniques and advance software technology. All other options are not
applicable. CIS is crucial for determining the profitability of each customer.
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7. Answer : (c)
Reason: Generic competition is a form of competition where all the companies compete for the same
disposable income of the customers
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8. Answer : (c)
Reason: Influencer is a person whose views and advice influence the buying decision. Kavita acted in the role
of influencer and also as information gatherer because she got the information that the skateboard
Sanjay wanted to purchase does not have any brakes. Kavita also influenced the mother to stop the
purchase. No family member served as decider is false since the mother took the role of decider.
Sanjay acted in the role of initiator.
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9. Answer : (b)
Reason: Reverse marketing is a process in which the organization specifies the quality level of the raw
materials it requires from its suppliers and suggests that they take sufficient steps to conform to the
quality level. Service also plays an important role, because no organization would like to buy goods
from a vendor who cannot provide timely and efficient service.
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10. Answer : (b)
Reason: In causal research, the cause and effect relationships between two variables are analyzed. This
research helps managers select a particular strategy. It is carried out by considering a detailed
questionnaire. (a) Exploratory research helps the management identify the presence of potential
opportunities and threats for the company. (c) Descriptive research is generally conducted after the
exploratory research. As the problem is clearly defined in exploratory research, the quantum or
intensity of the problem is identified. Option (d) and Option (e) are not applicable.
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11. Answer : (d)
Reason: Opting for leasing or buying relate to purchasing policies. Purchasing policies of organizations
differ. Some organizations have a policy of buying systems rather than individual components.
Government organizations usually buy through bidding. Therefore, suppliers who have a
comparative cost advantage may prefer to target such markets.
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12. Answer : (a)
Reason: The BCG matrix is a model used to allocate resources to Strategic Business Units of an organization.
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13. Answer : (c)
Reason: To implement a strategy, a firm needs commitment, leadership, and superior managerial skills.
Strategy must be converted into actions to be achieved on a day-to-day basis.
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14. Answer : (c)
Reason: Market leaders have considerable market share and a significant presence in the industry.
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15. Answer : (a)
Reason: Capital equipment comprises of the large tools and machines that are used for the productions of
goods or for providing services. (b) Accessories are those products that help in production or office
activities. They do not become part of final product. (c) A component is a finished product or a
product that needs a little processing before becoming a part of the main product. (d) Raw material is
the basic material used in producing a product. (e) Consumable supplies are products that are
consumed during production and delivery of the product but they do not become part of the final
product.
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16. Answer : (a)
Reason: Product line pruning is reducing the depth of a product line by deleting less profitable offerings in a
particular product category. (b) Product Line Extension is adding depth to an existing product line by
introducing new products in the same product category. Product line extensions give customers
greater choice and help to protect the firm from a flanking attack by a competitor. (c) Product line
filling is adding more products to the existing range of the product line. (d) Product line
modernization is a strategy in which items in a product line are modified to suit modern styling and
tastes and re-launched. (e) Product line stretching is introducing new products into a product line.
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17. Answer : (d)
Reason: A company may differentiate itself from its competitors by image; the particular image or
"personality" it acquires is created by its logo and other symbols, its advertising, its atmosphere, its
events and personalities. (a) Product differentiation implies differentiating on the basis of product
form, features, benefits etc. Services differentiation lies in adding valued services. (c) Differentiation
achieved through having better-trained people is personnel differentiation. (d) Companies can
achieve a distinct differentiation for their products on the basis of the distribution channel they use.
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18. Answer : (c)
Reason: A private brand is a brand that is designated, owned and used by a wholesaler or retailer.
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19. Answer : (d)
Reason: Exclusive distribution has a limited number of intermediaries between the producer and the
customer.
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20. Answer : (e)
Reason: The most crucial activity of the marketing channel members is to match the needs of buyers and
sellers. Normally most sellers do not know where they can reach potential buyers and similarly,
buyers do not know where they can reach potential sellers. From this perspective, the role of the
marketing channel to match the buyers and sellers needs becomes very vital. Producers can do
without intermediaries, but not the functions they perform. The smooth flow of products from the
producer to the end-user takes place with the help of intermediaries. The flow of information from
the channel to the customers is essential in order to create awareness among them about the
availability of the products. A set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making
a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumer or industrial user is called a
distribution channel.
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21. Answer : (d)
Reason: Customers can clearly distinguish between message sources is true. A mass marketing strategy
implies an unsegmented market where there would be little need for marketing communication;
hence it is not a way forward for marketing communication. Message structure and format does not
illustrate what the marketing communicator decides to say instead it is the message content.
Computers and IT are not helping a shift towards effective mass marketing; instead the shift is
towards effective customized marketing.
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22. Answer : (e)
Reason: The difficulty with effective sales promotion is the fact they can be easily duplicated is true. (a) The
promotional mix contains seven elements. (b) Public relations is not free. (c) Public relation is
another promotional element that provides immediate feedback. (d) Advertising is a promotional
element, which does not create customized interaction.
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23. Answer : (c) < TOP >
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Reason: Salesforce automation (SFA) is the use of technology designed to make the sales function more
effective and efficient.
24. Answer : (c)
Reason: Sales variance analysis is a technique, which helps in evaluating the factors responsible for the
deviations in sales.
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25. Answer : (d)
Reason: Licensing is a form of providing access to a patent or a trademark to some other company by
charging a fee or royalty. This will facilitate the licensed company to leverage the value of these
patents or trademarks and increase its business potential.
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26. Answer : (e)
Reason: Forums are discussion groups located on commercial websites that link users to libraries, directories
or chat rooms.
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27. Answer : (c)
Reason: A complaint log is used to record details of customer complaints about service delivery. It serves as
feedback for the firm and in taking corrective actions to improve service delivery. (a) A policy
manual details the organization’s policies. (b) An employee handbook contains instructions, codes
for employees. (d) Option is irrelevant. (e) An operations manual contains details about how various
procedures and processes are to be implemented.
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28. Answer : (d)
Reason: Survival can be the short-term objective of an organization’s pricing strategy to compete in the
fiercely competitive environment. Organizations feel that a reduction in the price can be
compensated with the increase in sales volume.
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29. Answer : (a)
Reason: In experience curve pricing, new products are introduced at a low price. Organizations believe that
as employees acquire experience in producing the product, they will learn the technology and
production process better and work more efficiently. Therefore, more units are produced in the same
period of time and the organization’s cost of production decreases significantly.
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30. Answer : (e)
Reason: All statements are expenses that a company has to bear during test marketing.
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Section B : Caselets
1. The possible reasons for Onida Candy not doing well are:
Wrong product positioning. This is where everything got haywire for Onida candy. Onida was eying for the
replacement TV market, in which black TVs were exchanged for colour TVs, as well as an Add-On-TV market at the
same time. The replacement market which accounted for 25% of the CTV market seemed very attractive. Onida
positioned Candy to tap this market, as it seemed to be ideally placed to tap this age group. However, this did not seem
to have worked too well for Onida. Positioning it as both for the replacement market and as an add-on could have
created confused positioning.
Poor product differentiation. Candy did not effectively promote itself to its target market. The CTV market being
over crowded, Onida Candy could not successfully differentiate itself.
Price: Candy was priced too highly compared to its competitors. This could also have been a reason for the decline.
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2. The pitfalls involved in positioning a product are:
• Quite often, it happens that a product is positioned on the basis of the obvious aspects of the product features: this
becomes too predictable and the charm in positioning is lost. However, many times, the obvious aspects have to be
used for positioning. For instance, when Coca-Cola was the first entrant in the cola market, it positioned itself as
the "Real Thing." This positioning made sense at that time but as time passed, it lost its charm and the company
had to alter its positioning strategy by coming out with a new punch line "Always Coca Cola," Companies have to
resort to such changes when they feel that positioning on the clearly obvious aspects of the product is not drawing
the desired benefits.
• Most companies try to live in the future rather than position their products based on their current capabilities. They
might achieve newer technologies or resources in the future, but need to take care to position their products on the
basis of their current advantages. It is important to ensure the success the company can achieve today, rather than
trying to position the product on the basis of a technology that might accrue in the future.
• Marketers often commit the mistake of diluting the positioning strategy to make it more attractive. Products should
be positioned with powerful ideas and communicated as they are, but normally marketers come out with a simple
positioning idea and pass it on to the creative department. This is where the strength of the positioning gets diluted
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and the process is known as under positioning.
• Just as under positioning of a brand is a possibility, there is also scope for over positioning a brand. In this
situation, buyers may have a very narrow image of the company's brand. Over positioning is usually seen in cases
where the firm initially promotes its brand as a premium brand.
• Positioning is normally done by managers with an inside-out thinking and is based on what is going on in the
organization. But, actually for a positioning strategy to be successful, it has to be based on an outside-in strategy.
An outside-in strategy is one where a manager tries to develop the positioning based on what customers and other
stakeholders think about the company.
• Companies often position their products such that it helps them achieve short-term sales and profits. Issues like
stocks and share prices are a major reason for this type of positioning. But positioning has to be done keeping in
mind long term gains in the market and not short-term gains.
• Another pitfall is confused positioning. Marketers should not confuse consumers by meddling too much with the
positioning strategies of their established brands. For instance, Pepsi once introduced a clear Pepsi with the name
Crystal Pepsi. Consumers thought that if it was not brown, then it could not be a cola, and as a result the product
failed in the market.
• Sometimes companies try to create brand awareness among customers even before positioning the brand clearly in
the market. This phenomenon, known as doubtful positioning, often generates a negative attitude towards the
brand. For instance, many of the dot com companies spent heavily on television advertising, without themselves
being clear about what they were selling.
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3. Canon evaluated the environmental factors appropriately before investing in India. The macro environment can be
evaluated as follows:
The political environment at the time of Canon’s entry in 1997 was stable. Though the government was a coalition,
yet it was pro-liberalisation. This spelt stability on the economic policies front and thus the political environment was
conducive to investment.
Economic environment, in India, too was very healthy. The new economic policies were pro-investment.
Deregulation, and liberalization of Industrial Licensing had already taken place. FERA was liberalised which meant
that foreign investment and technology import were made easier. Fiscal and monetary reforms were in the pipeline and
pointed towards a bright future. Public sector participation was being abetted by the government. All in all, the
economic environment too was ripe.
The social environment in India was a mixed bag. Though the middle class was burgeoning, yet the population below
the poverty line was a concern. A major part of the Indian population lived in small villages, which did not even have
access to electricity. However, this was not of much of a concern to the firm.
The technological environment prevalent in India was very dynamic. India was fast being recognized worldwide as
the leader in Information Technology. Allied industries were booming and India seemed to be on its way up. The
development of Information Technology threatened to produce a ‘paperless office’. But despite this the growth
augured well for Canon.
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4. Opportunities
• Canon identified weaknesses of competitor’s and converted them into opportunities Modi-Xerox, had the lion’s
share of the market, Canon, India was spot on in analyzing its strengths and weaknesses. Modi-Xerox was
concentrating on the offices and corporate clients. This was one of their strength areas. Since Modi-Xerox was not
focusing on another major segment – the ‘jobber’ segment (the corner-shop which does a photocopy)- Canon,
India decided to vigorously attack it!
RPG-Ricoh (the second largest player) was involved with restructuring its business and could not employ any
tactics to thwart Canon, India’s entry. The timing of the entry seems to be strategically very appropriate as RPGRicoh
was unable to react due to its restructuring. Thus, Canon, India capitalized on another weakness (though a
temporary one).
In 2001, HP was preoccupied with its parallel shipment problems. Epson’s Stylus 480 didn’t live up to its
expectations and Epson didn’t manage to recover from that, and Lexmark, which had so far been selling through
TVSE, decided it was time to go solo and proceeded to revamp its distribution plan.
• Canon realizes that its core competencies lie in the area of digital imaging.
• India is a strategic market for Canon in Asia
• Many product segments can be tapped for growth – peripherals, SOHO and consumer segments
Threats
• The development of Information Technology pointed to emerging ‘paperless offices’.
• Competition from HP, Epson, Modi Xerox and RPG Ricoh.
• Sound channel strategies of HP and Epson
Weaknesses
• Canon, India realized that its weakness lies in the fact that it is serving the jobbers segment. This is a weakness
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that the jobbers segment is spread over a large geographical area- in all major and small towns of India. Thus, the
geographical spread which Canon, India had to cover to service the machines would make after sales service a
very arduous task.
Strengths
• Focus on revamping distribution and marketing strategies
• Presence in many product segments helping realize synergies
• Large distribution network, cross-selling and competitive pricing
• Strategic focus on the product categories of digicams and projectors, which are products based on new technology
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5. Personal factors that affect consumer buying behaviour are:
Age and lifecycle: Over the life cycle stages, people use different products and their demand for goods and services
keep changing. People at different ages will have different tastes in food, clothes, furniture and recreation. Even
families pass through different stages of the life cycle over time. Therefore, marketers should determine the needs of
their target markets and introduce different products and marketing efforts targeted at different stages.
Occupation and financial status: Occupation and income level of a person have a major impact on his savings and
buying behavior. For example, a blue collar worker will indulge more in purchasing clothes, shoes, etc., which he can
wear to work. Similarly, a company's chairman may buy clothes, accessories and other products and services that suit
his lifestyle. The financial condition of an individual such as his disposable income, savings, his ability to buy costly
products and services on installments and bear the interest rates, etc. will have a significant influence on his buying
behavior.
Lifestyle: An individual's way of leading his life will determine his lifestyle. Factors such as work life, interests, social
groups, etc. influence the life style of an individual.
Psychological Factors that affect consumer buying behaviour are:
Motivation: A motive is a strong urge that drives a person's activities towards unfulfilled needs and wants. Customers
are influenced by a motive or a set of motives when they have unfulfilled needs. In other words, needs are the
motivational elements behind the purchasing decision of customers. One of the most widely known motivational
theory, the hierarchy of needs, was proposed by Abraham Maslow and explains why people are driven by particular
needs at particular times. According to Maslow, needs can be classified as (a) physiological needs, (b) security needs,
(c) social needs, (d) esteem needs and (e) self actualization needs.
Customers tend to satisfy their needs on the basis of the intensity or requirement of the needs. For example,
physiological need is the most basic need and hence, an individual would satisfy it first. Satisfaction of one need leads
to emergence of higher level unfulfilled needs. Needs are general in nature but wants arise out of the desire to fulfill
the needs in a specific way. For example, food can be classified as a need, but eating a particular dish or at a particular
food joint is a want. Wants that are conditioned by certain motives are known as buying motives. Marketers must work
to create these wants in the customers and target/position their product in such a way as to invoke desire in the
customer to fulfill these wants.
Perceptions: Perception is defined as the process by which an individual selects, organizes and interprets stimuli into
meaningful thoughts and pictures. Customers base their perception on their needs, wants, past experiences and
something that they consider to be true. For example, a subscriber/reader who reads a particular newspaper or journal
might perceive it to give the true picture of the happenings around him.
Perceptions of a person are affected by many factors like reality, sense, risk etc.
• Customers perceive their environment through the sense of touch, smell, taste, hearing, etc.
• Customer's buying decisions are also influenced by the risk factor involved. For example, does the customer
perceive the product to be safe, does he find it worth spending the time on shopping, and does he think that the
price is worth the amount paid for? Marketers can address these problems through appropriate marketing
communication strategies.
• Understanding the customer's perception helps the marketers position their product better than that of the
competitors. It helps them develop the right store image, product quality, price, distribution channel etc.
Therefore, marketers must make an effort to understand the perceptions of the customers and adjust their marketing
mix accordingly. ,
Beliefs and Attitude: A belief is a descriptive image or thought that an individual holds about something. People
acquire beliefs and attitudes through experience as well as learning. The beliefs and attitudes held by people, in turn,
influence their buying behavior.
A person's attitude is a set of his feelings and the way in which he reacts to a given idea or thought. Attitudes can be
positive, negative or neutral. Customer attitudes and beliefs influence his perception and buying behavior. Customer
attitudes are based on their past experiences with the products and through their interaction and relationship with their
respective reference groups.
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Customers’ attitudes can have a major impact on a firm’s marketing efforts.
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6. In the branded sector consumers make decisions based on ‘perceived value’ and not just price. This can be supported
by the following justification:
A consumer is willing to pay a certain price for a certain quality because for a customer value implies a combination of
quality and price. Different segments of consumers look at different ‘perceived value’ points, which constitute the
tangible part. At the same time, the intangible part of perception, which is a combination of image and emotional
value, also contributes to consumers’ purchase and consumption decisions. The tangible value and the intangible
perception together constitute the ‘perceived value’ of any brand in the minds and hearts of the consumers. In fact
‘perceived value’ wars work in brands because they are fought for the mind and heart of consumers. Price wars do not
work in the branded sector because they are fought mainly in the short-term trade and pocket level. Thus ultimately it
is the ‘perceived value points’ that the consumer looks for and the wars that are actually won are “perceived value”
wars and not ‘price’ wars.
The success of Star TV is also an instance of how perceived value is more important over other factors. The viewer’s
involvement with ‘perceived value’ is so high that he looks at the product value, and not brands, and evaluates each
one. For products that have higher ‘perceived value’, the consumer gives up his brand loyalty and moves towards
greater enjoyment and satisfaction. Surely, ‘perceived value loyalty’ emerging rapidly.
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7. Brand managers and marketing heads will have to clean up and polish their act because nothing stops the Indian
customer from deciding not to continue with any brand that does not provide him with the desired ‘perceived value’.
Marketers should consider the following:
• Marketers must focus on the consumer and not on the competition. Comparing and contrasting with competition,
and even following the price cut road to a bottomless pit, is suicidal. Every company must focus on its consumer
segments and customize its offerings.
• Avoid unwarranted and adhoc promotions, that are actually disguised price cuts that reduce the equity and the
image of the brand as they focus on the ‘deal’ rather than the branded product.
• There is difference between brands and commodities. Faceless and nameless commodities, have only one recourse
– Price. Branded products, on the other hand, satisfy various needs of the consumer and non-price factors can be
very important.
• It is important first to look at the consumers and their needs and thereafter all other stakeholders.
• A price reduction sometimes gives a wrong signal to the consumer making one feel that it is a liquidation exercise,
a desperate move, tampering with quality or earlier excess profiteering.
• The element of parity should also be considered. If one marketer can reduce price so can the others. It is important
to create disparity through positioning, core values and enhancing the ‘perceived value’ in minds and hearts of
consumers. There is nothing wrong in launching a new brand or a variant at a low, medium or high ‘perceived
value point’. This is consciously done to focus on a given segment.
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Section C: Applied Theory
8. Advantages to the franchiser
Low capital and low risk: Franchising helps a franchiser to penetrate new markets. The franchiser can add on to his
number of distribution outlets and improve his business on the basis of capital obtained from the franchisee. This
allows the franchiser to utilize his capital to improve other aspects of the business, like enhancing the manufacturing
capacity.
Speedier Expansion: The company grows faster, since new distribution outlets have been added in the form of
franchisees. Such speedy expansion would not be possible for companies handicapped by limited capital.
Extended Market Penetration: The speedy expansion due to the addition of distribution outlets helps the franchiser
to enter and capture new markets before its competitors can gain a stronghold in them
Motivation of the Franchisee: Since the franchisee invests capital in the business, the motivation of the franchisee to
succeed is high. It has been observed that franchisee businesses have a higher success rate than company-owned or
non-franchisee types of businesses. The success of the franchisee in the business directly affects the profits of the
franchiser. Thus, the franchiser also benefits with improvement in the franchisee's business.
Controlling the quality: Quite often, when business expands, it becomes difficult for a marketer to focus on quality
management issues. This results in poor quality output of products and services. However, in franchising, the
franchisee takes care of the day-to-day operations of the business, leaving the franchiser with enough time to
concentrate on issues related to quality and standardization of products and services.
Disadvantages to a franchiser
Business Control: The franchiser runs a risk by agreeing to do business with the franchisee because any negligence or
failure in maintaining quality standards on the part of the franchisee will have an adverse impact on the franchiser's
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business or brand image. Moreover, the franchising agreement made with the franchisee should be devoid of any
loopholes or flaws that would benefit the franchisee. Failure to have a strong franchising agreement can lead to the
franchiser's loss of control over his business.
Expenses Involved: Franchising involves a lot of expenses for a franchiser such as expenditure pertaining to legal
documentation during the agreement process, expenses of conducting a certified financial audit of company records,
advertising expenses to attract potential franchisees and, at times, expenses incurred to fight legal battles against the
franchisee. Keeping in view these expenses, franchising may not appear to be a viable option for marketers with a
limited capital. Hence, before deciding to enter into a franchising agreement, a marketer has to carefully weigh these
costs against the benefits that will be accrued in the form of market expansion, franchisee success rate, and so on.
Lower Profit Potential: Since the franchiser only licenses the franchisee to do business and the actual operation of the
business is carried out by the franchisee, the franchiser gets a narrow profit percentage as royalty from the franchisee.
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9. Major Decisions in PR like any other marketing activity, PR follow the following systematic approach:
(i) Setting objectives
A company can have a number of objectives like:
• Build awareness: It can publish stories/articles in the media or take part in social activities to attract the attention
of the customers_ towards its products.
• Build credibility: This can be achieved when the views regarding the company is carried in the editorial section of
newspapers/publications or when the news is carried out as a news item in the broadcast medium.
• Motivate sales force: Companies can motivate their sales force by publishing stories about a new product in
various media before actually launching the product. Thus, they can create an interest about the product in the
sales force as well. This also stimulates other channel members like the retailers to stock the new product, which
reduces the lead-time.
• Cut dawn promotional cast: Publicity and PR can help the firm in cutting dawn its promotional cast to an extent.
(ii) Selecting the message and media vehicle
PR managers must identify and develop interesting news and stories for the media. They must conduct news events or
sponsorship programs that can serve the dual-purpose of conveying the message as well as help in developing the
message in the course of the event. Messages can be carried out in various media like the newspapers, newsletters, the
TV, the Internet, intranet, radio broadcast, etc. in the form of news release, news item, a captioned photograph, etc.
Hence, marketers should take care in selecting the right media and the media vehicles.
(iii) Implementing the plan
Major Tools of PR
Firms can use a number of PR tools to communicate with the public and create a positive image far themselves in the
society. PR managers prepare brochures, newsletters, logos, in-house magazines, annual report and news releases. PR
managers also use publicity, to enhance the image of the company. It can be used to provide information about new
product launches, mergers, research and development carried out by the firm, acquisitions by the company and so an.
Examples of publicity based public relation tools can be news releases, featured articles, captioned photographs, press
conferences, sponsoring social events etc.
Techniques for PR
Consumer communication: Companies use a variety of communication tools like customer press releases, promotional
videos, consumer exhibitions, competitions and prizes, product launch events, celebrity endorsements, web sites, etc.
Business communication: A company can communicate to its business associates and other publics through a)
Company and product videos, b) Direct mailings, c) Trade press releases, d) Web sites, e) Trade exhibitions, f)
Articles. It can also use a host of other external corporate communication channels like a) Company literature like
annual reports, brochures, videos, etc., b) Community involvement programs, c) local, national and international media
relations, d) shareholder meetings (including the annual general meeting) and e) meetings with stock market analysts,
fund managers, etc.
Employee communication: Employee morale is strengthened if the public perceives the firm favorably. Hence, firms
use various techniques to communicate with its employees like a) in-house newsletters and magazines, b)
internal/employee communication channels, c) Intranet and email, d) notice boards, e) company get together and
picnics, f) employee conferences etc.
(iv) Evaluating PR
It is actually quite difficult to measure whether the key messages have been communicated to the target audience,
because the number of techniques used in PR to reach various target audiences is quite large. In any case, measuring
the effectiveness can be quite a costly affair, as it would involve a large amount of regular research. However, the main
measures of effectiveness concentrate on the process of PR and they include
• Monitoring the amount of media coverage obtained: In the case of press media, a company can maintain press
cuttings to know how many times its news items appeared in various print media.
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• Measuring attendance at meetings, conferences, etc.
• Measuring the number of inquiries or orders received in response to specific public relations efforts.